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Although this global geopolitical climate clearly mandated a need for international experts, particularly those trained in less commonly taught languages, they were in short supply. This spurred Federal funding to build foreign language and area studies programs at U.S. universities through Title VI of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958. The NDEA aimed to insure trained expertise of sufficient quality and quantity to meet U.S. national security needs. According to Ralph Hines, current director of the U.S. Department of Education's International Education Programs Service, 'Prior to the passage of the act, few of the languages spoken by more than three-fourths of the world's population were being offered in the United States and not enough scholars were available to perform research in such languages or to teach them... Hindi, for example, was being studied by only twenty-three students in the United States in 1958." ("An Overview of Title VI," Changing Perspectives on International Education, 6-7.) At that time, India was the world's largest democracy and leader of the Nonaligned Movement of approximately 120 countries. Vowing to maintain independence from either side of the Cold War, the countries of the Nonaligned Movement made many joint stands against U.S. and Western European intervention in the world and enjoyed Soviet support.
To better meet the national need for international experts, the NDEA initially funded 19 centers that focused on area and international studies, then known as language and area centers but now referred to as National Resource Centers (NRCs). In addition to the NRCs, three more programs were created by the NDEA: modern foreign language fellowships (the precursor to today's Foreign Language and Area Studies (FLAS) Fellowships); international research and studies (IRS); and language institutes (LI). Together, these programs formed a comprehensive approach to foreign language and world region education that would help prepare the United States for current and future global challenges. Language and area centers aimed to expand instruction of the uncommon languages and related subjects in higher education. Modern foreign language fellowships assisted qualified advanced students in the study of uncommon languages. Research and area studies supported advanced education in language learning methodology and the creation of specialized teaching materials in both common and uncommon languages. The language institutes provided advanced language training and guidance in the use of new teaching materials and methods for elementary and secondary school teachers. According to David Wiley, director of the African Studies Center at Michigan State University, "NDEA heralded a major U.S. commitment to devoting new attention to the world beyond its borders – first to teach more of the uncommonly taught foreign languages, and then to learn in depth about the histories, societies, cultures and political systems of the key foreign powers as well as the rapidly multiplying "Third World" nations." ("Forty Years of the Title VI and Fulbright-Hays International Education Programs," Changing Perspectives on International Education, 13.) Some of these uncommonly taught and important languages included Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, and Hindi-Urdu. The programs emphasized the study of the non-Western world in keeping with the original intent to strengthen expertise in underrepresented world areas.
As a new international system evolved, Title VI programs evolved and expanded accordingly. One important arena for U.S. security as well as foreign language and area expertise during the Cold War was Latin America. Countries throughout the region experimented with various forms of government spanning the political spectrum. In the early 1960s, the Cuban Missile crisis demonstrated the instabilities of bipolarity and its threats to international security as the world teetered on the brink of nuclear war. Reflecting the growing emphasis on and importance of our Latin American neighbors, in 1961 President Kennedy enacted the Alliance for Progress, which provided funds to combat illiteracy and promote education, and to support economic integration, the growth of the market economy, technical training and Peace Corps programs, as well as scientific and higher education collaborations in Latin America. In addition, the Kennedy Administration pledged defense of nations where independence was endangered. During this period, the NRC focus also expanded to include Latin America.
Also during this time in U.S. history, Senator J. William Fulbright succeeded in persuading Congress to pass the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange, or Fulbright-Hays, Act of 1961. An Executive Order ultimately assigned Section 102 (b)(6) of this act to the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare because of the section's emphasis on creating an American international education infrastructure. Like Title VI, Fulbright-Hays was aimed at strengthening non-West European language and area expertise in the United States. These goals were achieved through focused opportunities for overseas study and research -- both essential for training language and area experts. Thus, Fulbright-Hays is viewed as the overseas counterpart to the domestic capacity-building Title VI programs. The original Fulbright-Hays legislation supported the following four initiatives: Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad (DDRA); Faculty Research Abroad (FRA); Group Projects Abroad (GPA); and Foreign Curriculum Consultants (FCC). A Teachers Abroad (TA) program was integrated into FRA, then eliminated as other international education opportunities for teachers became possible through Fulbright-Hays. Except for TA and FCC, these programs continue to serve as important mechanisms for developing and maintaining international expertise among elementary, secondary, and postsecondary educators.
In 1972, the Title VI NRCs -- then 106 at 59 different institutions -- moved beyond their specialist training focus to include outreach to elementary and secondary (K-12) education, four-year and community colleges, media, business and the general public. Additionally, Title VI began funding two-year seed money grants to assist postsecondary institutions in internationalizing their curricula – a precursor to today's Undergraduate International Studies & Foreign Language Program (UISFL). By reaching a great number of institutions and their students, these developments helped to expand Title VI's impact beyond institutions with traditional language and area studies strength while simultaneously strengthening the Title VI/Fulbright-Hays pipeline for recruiting and training international experts.
In 1980, detente continued while the global economy became increasingly interdependent, contributing to greater acknowledgment in the business community of the need for international expertise. At this time, the Title VI legislation was incorporated into the Higher Education Act (HEA) of 1965, emphasizing a greater focus on international studies' value as a part of higher education, rather than solely as support for U.S. government, military and security needs. The HEA reauthorization language reflected the increasing importance of international expertise to all aspects of modern life, including business, technology, education, media, health and other professional fields.
Times of international crises reinforce the importance of Title VI and Fulbright-Hays, their location in a domestic education agency and the partnership between the Federal government and higher education that they represent. Fulbright-Hays programs, in particular, have provided critical links to areas of great political sensitivity over time. Because educational programs were perceived in non-political terms, program participants were able to maintain Egyptian links after the Six-Day War, and continue operating in China following Tiananmen Square. Being present in those countries allowed participants to experience and integrate vital historical and cultural insights as these events occurred. The programs' location in the U.S. Department of Education allows them to operate in areas of critical strategic importance, in countries with which the United States does not necessarily maintain formal diplomatic relations.